Starving children during the famine (right); Soviet Union’s dictator, Joseph Stalin (left). CPA Media-Pictures from History/The Granger Collection (Stalin); Rue des Archives/The Granger Collection (children)

‘Death by Hunger’

A human-made famine in Ukraine in the 1930s sheds light on Russia-Ukraine relations today

The soil in Ukraine is some of the most fertile anywhere—so fertile that the country is sometimes known as “the breadbasket of Europe” for its vast fields of grain. But in 1932 and 1933, millions of people in this region known for producing so much of the world’s food were dying in the streets of starvation. 

This catastrophic famine—known in Ukraine as the Holodomor, or “death by hunger”—wasn’t caused by blight or drought, but by government policy under the rule of the Soviet Union’s dictator at the time, Joseph Stalin.

Aiming to crush Ukrainian independence and transform the Soviet Union into an industrial power, Stalin forced millions of Ukrainian peasant farmers onto state-run collective farms, punishing resistance to his harsh measures by leaving the population without enough food to survive.

Authorities tore through villages and homes to take away grain and seeds.

The result was a horrific mass starvation, one that many historians have called a genocide—which left more than 4 million Ukrainians dead.

“The Soviet assault on the peasantry, and on the Ukrainian nation, . . . was one of the largest and most devastating events in modern history,” historian Robert Conquest told members of Congress in 1986. He added that “a great effort was put into denying or concealing the facts.” 

Now, 90 years later, the tragedy still reverberates throughout Ukraine. It’s seen today in the fierce resistance Ukrainians have shown to Russia’s recent invasion.

Jim McMahon

Jim McMahon

The Fight for Independence

Ukraine, a country about the size of Texas, sits to the west of Russia (see map, above). In the late 18th century, the land that makes up modern-day Ukraine was split between the Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires. That lasted until 1917, when, in the aftermath of World War I and the collapse of the Russian Empire, Ukraine became an independent nation.

But Ukraine’s independence was short-lived. In 1922, most of Ukraine was forcibly incorporated into the Soviet Union, which would comprise modern-day Russia and 14 other republics. The newly established communist state sought to control all spheres of life within its borders, including government ownership of businesses and absolute control over the press.

When Stalin rose to power in the Communist Party in the 1920s, he set out to create a modern superpower, no matter the cost. 

Public Domain via Wikipedia

Crops grown by peasant farmers in Ukraine are seized by Soviet authorities in 1932.

“We are fifty or a hundred years behind the advanced countries,” he said in a 1931 speech. “We must make good this distance in ten years. Either we do it, or they crush us.”

Stalin instituted a series of five-year plans for the Soviet state, the first of which was aimed at collectivizing agriculture—combining the millions of small farms owned by individual peasants into large farms owned and run by the state.

But millions of independent small-scale farmers in Ukraine resisted collectivization. Some slaughtered cattle, destroyed machinery, and even burned their land to prevent the government from seizing their farms.

Stalin meanwhile deemed the wealthier farmers, known as kulaks, “sworn enemies of the collective-farm movement.” He had them rounded up and imprisoned, deported, or even executed. Any farmer caught resisting collectivization was labeled a kulak and was punished as such.

Historic Images/Alamy Stock Photo

A propaganda photo of child collective farm workers staged by the Communist Party in 1933

Cracking Down on Ukraine

Stalin, historians say, saw the idea of Ukrainian independence as a challenge to the success of the Soviet state. Fearful that a peasant uprising in Ukraine could thwart his master plan, he targeted the region. 

First, in 1932, he imposed impossibly high grain collection quotas on Ukrainian villages, and Soviet officials confiscated all the wheat, barley, and other types of grain that were grown. The crops were used to feed other parts of the Soviet Union and also exported to other countries, leaving Ukrainians with little or nothing to eat.

New laws made stealing grain from a collective farm punishable by execution, and authorities tore through villages and even individual homes to confiscate any hidden grain and seeds.  

Oleksandra Radchenko, a teacher in the Kharkiv region, kept a diary to record the horror as it unfolded around her.

“Hunger, an artificial famine, is taking on a monstrous character,” she wrote on April 5, 1932. “Why are they taking the last grain of bread? No one understands why, and they continue to take everything down to the last kernel.”

Authorities tore through villages and homes to take away grain and seeds.

Some farmers and entire villages were blacklisted and cut off from the outside world, making it nearly impossible to get food. A cordon around Ukraine’s border prevented starving citizens from fleeing the country to beg for something to eat. 

As Ukrainians labored to grow food for other parts of the Soviet Union—and even countries abroad—they were dying of starvation at home. In 1932, the Soviet state extracted more than 4 million tons of grain from Ukraine, enough to feed at least 12 million people for a year, according to the University of Minnesota’s Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies.

Hungry enough to eat whatever they could get their hands on, Ukrainians consumed mice, dogs, rats, and tree bark. According to eyewitness accounts, some parents, crazed with hunger and driven to desperation, killed and ate their own children.

“Children are being kidnapped,” Radchenko wrote in January 1933, “and sausage made from human meat is being sold.”

By the Numbers

28,000

NUMBER of deaths per day in Ukraine during the height of the famine

13%

PERCENTAGE of Ukrainian population that died in the famine

5 million

NUMBER of peasant farms that were forcibly combined into collectives 

SOURCE: Holodomor Research and Education Consortium

By spring, the carnage was all around. Miron Dolot, a survivor from the village of Cherkasy, later recalled seeing all the bodies of the dead.   

“Starvation in our village now reached a point at which death was a desirable relief,” he wrote in his 1985 book, Execution by Hunger. “As the snow slowly melted away, human corpses were exposed to view everywhere: in backyards, on roads, in fields.”

By the following fall, the death toll in Ukraine had created such labor shortages that Stalin eased up on collections, resettling peasants from elsewhere in the Soviet Union to work on the collective farms, and effectively ending the famine.

At the time, it was illegal to even mention the famine. The Soviet Union altered statistics to cover up true death tolls and refused international aid, historians say. And the foreign press was barred from visiting the region.

Mstyslav Chernov/AP Images

Russian invasion: A civilian in Mariupol, Ukraine, stands outside a shelled hospital in March.

Echoes of the Past

But even after years of silencing, the Holodomor is a major part of Ukrainian collective consciousness today. Memories of the event have been told through the generations.

“My grandfather was starved during Holodomor,” said 26-year-old Olya, of Ivano-Frankivsk in western Ukraine, after Russia invaded her country on February 24. “My grandmother was jailed in 1949 for aiding people fighting for Ukrainian independence. They never gave up and are the only reason I was born free.” 

But with the recent Russian invasion of Ukraine ordered by President Vladimir Putin, Ukraine’s freedom once again hangs in the balance. Historians see similarities between the 1932-33 famine and the Russia invasion.

‘My grandfather was starved during Holodomor.’

“Putin, like Stalin, sees Ukrainian sovereignty as an existential threat to himself,” says historian Anne Applebaum, author of Red Famine. “I see a parallel in the way that Moscow has seen Kyiv [Ukraine’s capital] for a really long time.”

In the recent invasion, Russian forces have bombed hospitals, malls, schools, and homes. They’ve laid siege to entire cities. They’ve targeted civilians, with thousands of Ukrainians killed and millions forced to flee their country.

These attacks, historians say, carry echoes of the last attempt to erase Ukrainian independence, not with mass starvation but with bombs. Applebaum says memories of the famine fuel Ukrainians to fiercely resist today’s Russian aggression.

“One of the reasons Ukrainians are fighting so hard today,” says Applebaum, “is because they remember it.”

KEY DATES
Ukraine & Russia

1772-95: Division of Poland

The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth is divided in a series of partitions. Much of present-day Ukraine is incorporated into the Russian Empire. 

1918: Independence

After the Russian Empire collapses in 1917, Ukraine declares independence. Fighting ensues among countries seeking control of Ukraine. 

Tow/Slava Katamidze Collection/Getty Images

A Red Army battalion parades through Kharkiv, Ukraine, 1920.

1922: The Soviet Union

Russia’s Red Army seizes control of much of Ukraine, and its territory is forcibly incorporated into the Soviet Union.

1932-33: Ukrainian Famine

Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin collectivizes farms, laying the groundwork for a famine that kills millions of Ukrainians.  

1991: Soviet Union’s Collapse

Popular uprisings sweep away Communist regimes in much of Eastern Europe, and the Soviet Union disbands. Ukraine votes to become an independent country and begins transitioning to a market economy. 

Yuri Kadobnov/AFP via Getty Images

President Vladimir Putin

2014: Annexation of Crimea 

Russia invades and seizes the Ukrainian peninsula of Crimea, which Russian President Vladimir Putin claims is part of his country. This ramps up tensions between Russia and Ukraine.

TODAY: Invasion of Ukraine 

Putin launches a full-scale invasion of Ukraine on February 24. Ukrainians mount fierce resistance, but many thousands die in the first weeks of the war and millions of refugees flee. 

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